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| الموسوعة المتكاملة في toxicology | |
| | كاتب الموضوع | رسالة |
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الشمال عضو نشيط
عدد المساهمات : 56 العمر : 43 تاريخ التسجيل : 23/06/2009
| | | | الشمال عضو نشيط
عدد المساهمات : 56 العمر : 43 تاريخ التسجيل : 23/06/2009
| موضوع: رد: الموسوعة المتكاملة في toxicology الأربعاء 24 يونيو - 3:30 | |
| Stupor=grade of coma in which arousability only in response to sever stimuli
Reed' s classification of coma :
Grading of covsciousness G0 G1 G2 G3 G4
*Response to verbal stimuli - - - -
*Response to verbal stimuli - - -
*Deep tendon reflexes - -
*Resp. or circul.depression (intact) - (lost)
Coma Cocktail 3 things
Naloxone ,Dextrose , Thiamine
Naloxone :
(0.4mg ampouls Narcan),2mg I.V =5ampouls
value:
Very useful as there are synthetic & semisynthetic opiods such as codeine ,propoxyphene for which naloxon is administered in large dose to antagonize them effectively
Dextrose:
D50W for adults , D25W for children
D=dextrose W=water
Thiamine(vit B1)
Dose 100mg I.V to all adult &Adolescent But not to children
Value :
Prevent ppt of Wernick's encephalopathy in alcoholic patient
Seizures(convulsions )
Management:
#airway must be kept patent O2
# Diazepam (valium)of choice
#in status epilepticus phenytoin or Phenobarbital
2-Proper clinical Evaluation
History, physical examination & laboratory tests are used for proper clinical evaluation
3- Reduction of further absorption of the poison :
1- Eye decontamination
2- Skin decontamination 3- GIT decontamination
Eye decontamination In corrosives: with normal saline for at least 15-20 minute. DONOT USE NEUTRALIZING SUBSTANCE (heat release)
Skin decontamination
1. For corrosives: use water or saline for 10-15 minute. 2. for other toxic substances: use cold water then wash with soap.
3. Some chemicals require special TTT such as: *Lime & cement → ttt like alkali burn *Flammable metals →remove the large particles & cover the surface with mineral oil. *Phenols (cresols) → Polyethylene. *White phosphorus →use copper sulfate solution.(Oxidizing agent)
YOU MUST PROTECT YOURSELF FIRST
GIT Decontamination
a) Emesis
b) Gastric lavage
c) Activated charcoal
d) Cathartics
e) Whole-Bowel irrigation
f ) Surgical decontamination
g) Local antidotes
a)Emesis
Indications :
-Patient: alert (intact gag reflex).
-Time of ingestion: not more than 4-6 hours
-Poison: not adsorbed by activated charcoal.
- Sustained release or enteric-coated tablets or big lumps.
Contraindications:
-Patient: absent or impaired gag reflex, heart disease, gastric ulcers , pregnancy,….
- Time of ingestion: more than 4-6 h after ingestion
- Poison: corrosives, sharp solid objects, drugs causing convulsions, volatile hydrocarbons (kerosine).
Methods used in induction of emesis
*Mechanical: touch the back of the pharynx by a finger; it is used in the home if syrup of ipecac is not available.
يتبع............. | |
| | | الشمال عضو نشيط
عدد المساهمات : 56 العمر : 43 تاريخ التسجيل : 23/06/2009
| موضوع: رد: الموسوعة المتكاملة في toxicology الأربعاء 24 يونيو - 3:32 | |
| *Drugs a) Gastric irritants : strong solution of salt or copper sulfate this is dabgerous as prodces hypernatremia ,cooper make copper toxicity b)Apomophine: centrally +ve CTZ , Not used now due to Depression of respiratory center c)syrup of epicac : Origin :dried root or rhizoma(ساق) of ipecacuanha or acminata plant Principle alkaloid :Emetine ,Cephaline Mechanism of induction of vomiting : Act both central &peripheral central +ve CTZ ,peripheral by irritation of gastric mucosa N.B. It must be given on full stomach so ask patient to drink one liter of water before administration Dose of syrup of epicac Infant (6-12month) è5-10ml of syrup of epicac +100-150ml clear fluid Children (1-5years)è 15ml of syrup of epicac +240 ml clear fluid Children (5-12years)è 20ml of syrup of epicac +240 ml clear fluid Over12 years è30ml of syrup of epicac +240-480 ml clear fluid When to stop epicac ? The dose is given every 20-30minutes for two doses if vomiting doesn’t occur Gastric lavage or Activated charcoal administration is decided . b)Gastric lavage Principle : Insert tube into stomach ,washing it with water or harmless solvent to remove unabsorbed poison Indications : 1- After ingestion as soon as possible 2- Useful for as long as 3hrs after ingeastion 3- If delayed gastric emptying èlavage useful for 12hrs 4- Considered only if patient ingested life threatening amount of toxic substance within one hour of presentation . Contraindications: As for emesis but can be used for hysterical , comatosed ,or any uncooperative patient Precautions : 1- In case of C.N.S depression or pulmonary irritant ingestion insert cuffed endotracheal tube before lavaging 2-It can be performed under general anesthesia in patient with convulsions Procedure : Tube:150 cm long,1.25 cm in diameter Having multiple openings on sides &At tips. Before inducing the tube Ask the patient to drink a glass of water if alert Steps 1- The patient lies on his left side with head lower to Avoid Aspiration &get good washing 2- Remove any foreign body from mouth (artificial tooth ,chewing gum,..) 3-lubricate the end of the tube with Glycerine then pass it smoothly to pharynx =èoesophagus =èstomach[If the patient alert ask him to swallow =èclosure of resp.passage during swallowing ] 4- Aspirate gastric content by irrigation syringe &keep in abottle with name of both patient &doctor ,time=èsent for analysis 5-Attach a funnel to the tube &hold it up èpour water (200ml) slowly èlower the funnel &let the content Regurgitate into a bucket =èRepeat it several times until fluid returned is as clear as possible How to know that the tube is in Stomach Not in the Trachea: ** If in Trachea : 1- movement of Air is heared. 2- Patient shows sudden spasmodic cough &cyanosis 3- Bubbling occurs if the end of the tube is immersed in water (expiration) *****if the tube is in stomach Aspiration brings up gastric content You ca leave Cathertic(مسهلات),local antidote …etc c)Activated charcoal Is considered the best method of Gastric decontaimation It is very effective Nonspecific adsorbent Dose : 1g/kg BW Generally 50-100g for adult 15-30g for children +suitable amount of water (250 ml for adult ) +Vigorously shaken to form a slurry لو في البيت ممكن يضرب في الخلاط ليكون عجين رقيق Administered orally or through nasogastric tube What do you know about Multiple(serial) dose activated charcoal? Indications: In theophyllin overdose &if threatening amount of Phenobarbital,Carbamazepine ,Quinine ,Dapsone or Aspirine is ingested. Mechanism:It can enhance elimination of absorbed toxins through @Interruption of enterohepatic or enteroenteric circulation e.g. theophylline ,Phenobarbital ,salicylates b)Gastro intestinal dialysis whereby the drug back diffuse from the higher serum levels ,through the intestinal villi& into the lower intraluminal concentrations. | |
| | | الشمال عضو نشيط
عدد المساهمات : 56 العمر : 43 تاريخ التسجيل : 23/06/2009
| موضوع: رد: الموسوعة المتكاملة في toxicology الأربعاء 24 يونيو - 3:33 | |
| Contraindications
1- Presencce of diminished bowel sounds,ileus &bowel obstruction 2-Prior to endoscopy after corrosive ingestion 3-In poorly absorbed poisons :cyanide, ethanol methanol,iron ,strong scids &alkalies
d) Cathartics: two groups are present : 1) saline cathartics :e.g. sodium sulphate ,magnesium sulphate 2) Saccharides :e.g.e.g. sorbitol (is the cathartic of choice ) Contraindication: Ingestion of corrosive ,sever diarrhea,ileus ,serious electrolyte imbalance &bowel injury e)Whole bowel irrigation It is a useful safe &rapid method to empty the gut in 4-6 hours .It produces a through cleansing of the entire intestinal tract Method : By use of High molecular weight polyethelene glycol (PEG) and isosomlar electrolyte solution (sodium sulphate) are used as isotonic solutions for WBI and available as Golytely & Colyte Indications : · Ingestion of massive amounts of highly toxic drugs . · Ingestion of large amounts of drugs in patients presenting late(more than 4 hours) · Ingestion of drug packets by body packers (cocaine filled packets ) (تجار المخدرات) · Ingestion of substances not adsorbed by activated charcoal
Contraindications: - G.I.T Haemorrhage ,perforation ,ileus &obstruction - Inadequate air way protection .
f) Surgical decontamination:
§ Surgical removal of concretions of sustained release tablets (e.g .Theophylline, Aspirin ,Carbamazepin) from the stomach . § The concrations are fragmented or via gastroendoscopy to be followed by activated charcoal and W.B.I.
Indications : § Concretion of sustained-release tablets . § Drug packets by body packers or body stuffers § Patients with bowel obstruction § When there is a contraindication to gut decontamination.
g)Local antidotes : § 1- Adsorbents : Activated charcoal § 2-Dilution&Neutralization: dilution with fluids (water or milk) But note that : If Alkali (any strength ) or weak acid caustic ,the oral dilution with cold fluids immediately after exposure may reduce oropharyngeal & gastric mucosal damage as it reduce the contact time with tissues . If strong acid :It is contraindicated due to production of heat &gases which lead to more destruction of tissues 3-precipitation J مهم e.g. tannic acid for=è alkaloids e.g opium Albumin water =èmercury Magnesium sulphate=èCarbolic acid Calcium hydroxide =èoxalic acid
4-oxidation potassium permanganate solution =èoxidize most alkaloids e.g.Atropin cupper sulphate =èphosphorus
5- Reduction e.g. sodium formaldhyde sulphoxylate =è reduce mercuric chloride to metallic mercury which is less soluble &thus non absorbable.
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| | | الشمال عضو نشيط
عدد المساهمات : 56 العمر : 43 تاريخ التسجيل : 23/06/2009
| موضوع: رد: الموسوعة المتكاملة في toxicology الأربعاء 24 يونيو - 3:35 | |
| METHODS FOR ELIMINATION OF THE ABSORPED POISON (1)forced diuresis and PH alteration . (2)Hemodialysis . (3)peritoneal dialysis . (4)hemofiltration . (5)plasmapheresis . (6)Hemoperfusion . (7)gut dialysis . (8)plasma perfusion . (9)hyperbaric oxygen. (10)exchang transfusion . (11)cardio pulmonary bypass. Forced diuresis and PH alteration AIM: PH alteration of urine to enhance renal excretion by increasing the amount of ionized form of the drug in urine AS *when the drug in the non ionized form is easily diffuse across the tubular membrane and reabsorbed *when the drug is ionized form it will be trapped in renal tubules and easily excreted INDICATIONS In toxicity with drug that are: (1)weak acid or weak base (2)low protein binding (3)have limited metabolism (4)have high renal clearance (5)have small volume of distribution COMPLICATIONS (1)fluid overload (2)pulmonary oedema (3)cerebral oedema (4)acid base disturbance (5)electrolyte imbalance INVESTIGATION (1)Plasma drug concentration (2)Fluid balance (3)Central venous pressure (4)Electrolytes, Serum sodium, Potassium. calcium and magnesium ACID DIURESIS § INDICATIONS § Amphetamine .strechnine. Quinidine and phencyclidine METHOD § 500ML dextrose 5%+ § 500ml saline 0.9%+ § 75ml ammonium chloride 2% give over 6 hours ALKALINE DIURESIS INDICATIONS Salicylates phenobarbital and phenoxyacetate herbicide METHOD 500ml dextrose 5%+ 500ml saline 0.9% + 500ml Na bicarbonate 1.26% over 3_4 hours HEMODIALYSIS Only eliminate drugs or toxins which can pass easily across the dialysis membrane i.e characterized by A) low molecular weight B) high water solubility C) small volume of distribution (high plasma concentration) INDICATIONS 1)Several clinical intoxications with vital signs abnormalities such as apnea, hypotension that do not respond to supportive care. 2)Impaired normal excretion routes e.g renal failure 3)progressive clinical deterioration and presence of complications such as aspiration pneumonia 4)prolonged coma with complications 5)presence of underlying diseases . 6)ingestion of alethal dose of poison . 7)ingestion of large dose of toxin that is metabolized to more toxic metabolites such as methanol and ethylene glycol . 8)drug produce delayed toxicity e.g paraquat. CONTRAINDICATIONS 1)Presence of antidotes 2)Coagulopathy 3)Cardiogenic shock 4)Non dialyzable toxins COMPLICATIONS 1)hypotension 2)electrolyte and Osmolar imbalance 3)hypoxemia 4)vascular access Complications 5)spontaneous Bleeding 6)infections 7)mechanical Complications 8)sever anaphylactic 9)sudden death fromMachine malfunction, Electrocution& Coagulopathy | |
| | | الشمال عضو نشيط
عدد المساهمات : 56 العمر : 43 تاريخ التسجيل : 23/06/2009
| موضوع: رد: الموسوعة المتكاملة في toxicology الأربعاء 24 يونيو - 3:37 | |
| 3-HemoPerfusion Blood is pumped through a cartridge of absorbent material ( activated charcoal or resins ) Indications :- The same as in hem dialysis , but hemoperfusion is not limited by the high molecular weight , protein binding or poor water solubility of the toxin because charcoal or resin can adsorb these toxins Contraindication :- Similar to those for hem dialysis Complications :- Similar to those for hem dialysis + thrombocytopenia , leucopenia and hypocalcaemia
4- Peritoneal dialysis :- Peritoneal dialysis operates on principles similar to those of hem dialysis diffusions of toxins from mesenteric capillaries across the peritoneal ( membrane into dial sate dwelling in the peritoneal cavity Indications :- 1- Patients with acute renal failure 2- Patients with bleeding disorders 3- Patients with venous access problems 4- Hem dialysis is not available 5- Patients for whom hem dialysis and hemoperfusion are contraindicated Method :- Through a catheter inserted intraperitoneally , adialysate fluid is instilledand 1-2 liters is exchanged each hours
Complications :- 1- Pain 2- Hemorrhage 3- Leakage 4- Inadequate drainage 5- Perforation of viscera 6- Bacterial peritonitis 7- Arrhythmias 8- Volume depletion or overload 9- Hyperglycemia and electrolyte disorders 10- Pneumonic and pleural effusion
5- Gut dialysis :-
( serial activated charcoal ) Gut dialysis enhances elimination of the toxins that have a) significant enterohepatic or enter enteric circulation b) limited protein binding c) small volume of distribution
6- Hyperbaric oxygen ( HBO ) :-
Hyperbaric oxygen ( HBO ) has been used in the management of carbon monoxide ( CO ) and cyanide ( CN ) poisoning , it is also used in other poisoning such as barbiturates , mushrooms , hydrocarbons and oregano phosphates HBO needs special hyperbaric chambers which aren’t available in most hospitals of Egypt HBO dramatically displaces CO from hemoglobin as well as the tissue sites , myoglobin and city chromes it reduces the elimination half lives of blood CO-Hb from 250 minutes at room air to 22 minutes at 3 atom of 100 % oxygen
Complications :-
1- Traumatic rupture of tympanic membrane 2- Acute sinusitis 3- Optic neuritis 4- Pneumonia thorax 5- Oxygen toxicity 6- Seizures 7- Safety hazards ( explosions , fir……etc )
7- Exchange Transfusion :-
It is the method by which the patient’s blood is removed and replaced with fresh whole blood
Double – exchange transfusion :- Is an amount of blood equivalent to twice the patient’s total blood volume is exchanged the only indication for this method is sever methaemoglobinemia not responding to ethylene blue therapy
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| | | الشمال عضو نشيط
عدد المساهمات : 56 العمر : 43 تاريخ التسجيل : 23/06/2009
| موضوع: رد: الموسوعة المتكاملة في toxicology الأربعاء 24 يونيو - 3:38 | |
| Specific antidotal TherapyChelating agentsAre organic compounds that react with heavy metal ions to form firmly bound complexes (chelates)We are going to study:B.A.LE.D.T.APenicillamineDeferroxamineD.M.S.A.1-B.A.L.B.A.L=British Anti-Lewisite (lewisite is the gas of war)Mechanism of Action :It acts by fixing the metal ions which have high affinity for SH group forming a relatively harmless &poorly dissociable ring compounds ‘chelates ‘ that prevent the poison from inactivating the SH containing respiratory enzymes .Uses :§ It is the physiological antidote of poisoning with heavy metals e.g. Arsenic ,Mercury, Antimony ,Antimony, Gold &Bismuth .§ It is of little value in ttt of lead poisoning because it only chelate lead ions present in the blood while the ions in the bones &tissues are too firmly bound to be mobilized by it§ BAL is not used in iron poisoning because BAL – iron complex is even more toxic than the unchelated iron.Dose:Deep I.M. injection of 10% BAL in peanut oil is given in a dose of 2.5 mg/kg body weight every 4-6 hours for 2 days then every 12 hours for 7-10 days .Why deep? To avoid abscess formationEDETA§ EDETA&EDETA salts :[ Na2 EDETA &Ca Na2 EDETA ]§ Ca salts are used because rapid I.V. administration of Na2 EDETA result in hypocalcemic tetany .This is the reflection of high affinity of EDTA for calcium .§ CaNa2EdETA can chelate any metal that has a greater affinity for EDETA than has calcium & can thus replace calcium from the complex§ Lead has high affinity for EDETA than calcium &can replace calcium in the complex forming a poorly dissociable chelate which is harmless &excreted in urine .§ Mercury poisoning responds poorly to ttt with Ca Na 2 EDETA in vitro because it doesn’t pass into areas of mercuryDose:§ CaNa2 edetate injection 20%solution 1g. (5ml)in 250-500 ml of 5% glucose in water or saline solution slowly by IV drip over a 1 hour period ,twice daily for 3-5 days§ The drug is then withheld for 2 days to allow redistribution of the lead ,thus increasing the amount of metal available for chelation.Dicobalt Edetate (Kelocyanor)§ It is a cobalt salt that form a relatively nontoxic stable ion complex with cyanide.§ Dose :300mg I.V Followed immediately by 50 ml of 50% glucose I.v this may be repeated after 5 minutes if there is no response .§ Side effects :Vomiting ,urticaria ,facial &neck edema ,hypotension ,chest pain &anaphylactic shock .Penicillamine :It posses one SH group§ It is prepared by hydrolic degradation of penicillin .§ It is an effective chelator of Copper ,Mercury, zinc &lead that promotes their excretion in urine§ It is well absorbed from G.I.T so it can be given orally .Dose :§ Penicillamine capsules :250 mg/capsules the usual dose is 1-2 capsules (250-500mg) every 6 hours on empty stomach to avoid interference by dietary metals .Deferoxamine ( Desferal )§ It is the chemically modified metal free ligand from streptomyces pilosus .§ It has high affinity for ferric ions ,& very low affinity for calcium§ It readily competes for the iron of ferritin &hemosiderin ,butthe iron of transferring is very minimally affectedDose:§ Deferroxamine mesylate 500mg ampules .§ 1g is given I.M ,followed by 500 mg every 4hours for two doses .§ The dose can be repeated at 4 or 12 hours intervals ,depending on clinical response ,but a total of 6g/24 hours shouldn't be exceeded§ In case of acute iron toxicity ,8g has to be given by nasogastric tube to be followed by IM injection described aboveDMSA (Succimer)§ DMSA is relatively selective orally active water soluble chelating agent§ It can be used in ttt of lead , arsenic ,organic &inorganic mercury poisoning .§ It is more effective than I.V. CaNa2-EDTA in lowering blood lead level , restoring red cell gamma aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALA-D)activity ,and increasing urinary lead excretion .Dose§ 10 mg /kg/8hrs orally for 5 days followed by 10mg/kg/12 hr for 14 days to delay the eventual rebound in blood lead concentration.Advantages of DMSA1- It is less toxic2- Orally active&highly effective .3- Relatively specific i.e. doesn't significantly chelate ca ,Mg,Fe, Cu, &Zn.4- Given safely to patient with G6Pd deficiency while BAL can cause hemolysis5- Iron supplementation can be given concomitantly with DMSA without any adverse effects ,while BAL –Iron complex is a potent emeticتطبيقعايزين نطبق اللي خدناهتعالو ناخد حاجة بسيطة الأولزي الأسبرين مثلاالخطوات بتاعتنا ايه؟1-2-3-4-5-6-7-كويس1-Prevent further exposure .لو واحدة منتحرة مثلا نحطها تحت الملاحظةلو غير كده نكتب الخطوة وجنبها شرطة علشان تعرف المصحح أنك عارف الخطوات لأن كل عنصر عليه درجة2-Emergency stabilization of the patient.لو العيان صاحي خلاص شرطة أو تقول Safeguard against respiration3-Proper clinical evaluation .هيقولك شرب أسبوسيد مثلا علشان ألوانه جذابة للأطفال4- Prevent further absorptionهل ينفع أعمل Emesis,Gastric lavageهل ينفع أستخدم فحم منشط5- Eliminate absorbed poison .هستعمل معاه أي نوعمعروف أن الأسبرين حمض إذن هستخدم قلوي500 مل لثلاثة محاليل500 مل جلوكوز أو دكستروز500 مل سلاين 9. في المائة500 مل بيكربونات صوديوموكلمتين عن ionizable ,prevent reabsorbtion6- Antidotal therapy if available.مفيش اذن شرطة7-Supportive Therapy.معروف أن الأسبرين بيرفع درجة الحرارة و بيزود الحموضة وممكن يعملHaematemsisإذن هعمله إيهكمادات ميه ساقعةZintacمضادات الهستامين علشان الحساسيةولو دخل فيPulmonary edemaأديله أكسجين منEndotracheal tubeتطبيق تانيCO poisoningالخطوات بتاعتنا ايه؟1-2-3-4-5-6-7-ماشي1-Prevent further exposure .لو أنت في قلب الحدث أول حاجة أنك تخرج المصاب من المكان لأن تركيز أول أكسيد الكربون بيكون أعلى في طبقات الجو السفلىطب افرض مثلا أن التعرض كان بكمية بسيطة والشخص جالك وقالك أنا أغمى عليّ خلاص طالما فايق أحطه تحت الملاحظة2-Emergency stabilization of the patient.أهتم بالتنفس بتاعهإفرض أنا لوحدي ومش معايا أنبوبة أكسجين ولا حاجة أعمل إيهأشوف airway patent &prevet obstructionوأعمل له تنفس صناعي لحاد ماتيجي عربية الإسعافطيب تصرفي إيه كطبيب في المستشفىEndotracheal entubation& mechanical entillation*100% oxygen*hyperbaric oxygenالإتنين مع بعض3-Proper clinical evaluation .من الhistoryهيقول لك كان بيتدفى في يوم شتى ومقفل عليهأو في جراش ومشغل بنزين و مقفل عليه مثلا او منتحر داخل عربيته مقفل القزاز برده ومدخل خرطوم البنزين من فتحةأو البوتاجاز كان بينفس وبعدين شغلنا الشعلة يقوم يحصل احتراق غير كامل ومثلها سخان الغاز برده4- Prevent further absorption .شرطة مفيش5- Eliminate absorbed poison .شرطة مفيش6- Antidotal therapy if available.شرطة مفيش7- Supportive Therapy.ممكن ايهWarm patient with blanketsBlood transfusion هذه هي المحاضرة الاولى فقط وبقي 5 محاضرات ولكن بدون ردود مشجعة لن استطبع ان اكمل المحاضرات | |
| | | امير الطب مشرف المنتديات الطبية
عدد المساهمات : 38 العمر : 38 تاريخ التسجيل : 17/06/2009
| موضوع: رد: الموسوعة المتكاملة في toxicology الأربعاء 24 يونيو - 7:24 | |
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| | | العلياء مراقب عام
عدد المساهمات : 227 العمر : 36 تاريخ التسجيل : 03/10/2008
| موضوع: رد: الموسوعة المتكاملة في toxicology الخميس 25 يونيو - 2:24 | |
| والله فى شى افهمتوا وفى شى لا بس اكيييييييييييييييد شكرا الك على المعلومات القيمة | |
| | | ابن الليث مشرف علم الطقيليات
عدد المساهمات : 242 العمر : 44 تاريخ التسجيل : 08/05/2009
| موضوع: رد: الموسوعة المتكاملة في toxicology الأربعاء 1 يوليو - 22:24 | |
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| | | amany farag عضو ذهبي
عدد المساهمات : 635 العمر : 58 تاريخ التسجيل : 07/06/2009
| موضوع: رد: الموسوعة المتكاملة في toxicology السبت 8 أغسطس - 23:52 | |
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| | | جولاني عضو جديد
عدد المساهمات : 10 العمر : 34 تاريخ التسجيل : 03/07/2011
| موضوع: رد: الموسوعة المتكاملة في toxicology الإثنين 4 يوليو - 12:00 | |
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| | | | الموسوعة المتكاملة في toxicology | |
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